Scientists analyzing skeletal remains from the Indonesian island of Sulawesi have identified what may constitute the earliest known evidence of human consumption of psychoactive substances. The research examined two pre-agricultural foragers whose remains were discovered at separate archaeological sites, with one skeleton dated to approximately 7,000 years old and the other between 16,000 to 25,000 years old.
Both individuals displayed unusual dental patterns characterized by deep, rounded grooves worn into their teeth, some penetrating deeply enough to expose the dental pulp. Researchers from Griffith University’s Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution theorized that this distinctive wear pattern resulted from the foragers regularly holding hard, round, and abrasive objects in their mouths over extended periods. Laboratory analysis of the teeth revealed traces of arecoline, the psychoactive compound found in betel nuts, the seeds of the Areca catechu palm.
To validate their hypothesis, the research team soaked betel nuts in artificial saliva and confirmed that the substance quickly released sufficient arecoline to produce psychoactive effects. The scientist leading the study noted that sucking on betel nuts produces a numbing sensation and bitter taste, which may have prompted their use. The pattern of tooth wear suggests the foragers may have engaged in this practice habitually, potentially creating a cycle in which nut-sucking initially relieved dental pain but ultimately caused more severe damage over time.
Betel nuts rank as the world’s fourth most widely used psychoactive substance globally, with approximately one-tenth of the world’s population currently using them. While evidence of fermented beverages such as barley beer dates back roughly 13,000 years, this discovery extends the timeline of documented human drug use substantially further into prehistory. The findings have been published in the journal Science Advances and represent a significant contribution to understanding ancient human behavior and the deep historical roots of substance use practices in the Asia-Pacific region.
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